Small Animal Clinical Nutrition

The most comprehensive and practical small animal nutrition resource available.

Chapter 25: Critical Care Nutrition and Enteral-Assisted Feeding References


AAFCO. (Association of American Feed Control Officials.) Official Publication, 2008.

Biden TJ, Taylor KW. Effects of ketone bodies on insulin release and islet-cell metabolism in the rat. Biochemical Journal 1983; 212: 371-377.

Birkham RH, Long CL, Fitkins D, et al. Effects of major skeletal trauma on whole body protein turnover in man measured by L-[1,14C]-leucine. Surgery 1980; 88: 294-300.

Boothby WM, Sandiford I. Basal metabolism. Physiological Reviews 1924; 4: 69-161.

Bouritius H, van Hoorn DC, van Middelaar-Voskuilen MC, et al. Carbohydrate supplementation before operation retains intestinal barrier function ands lowers bacterial translocation in a rat model of major abdominal surgery. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2008; 32: 247-253.

Bower RH, Cerra FB, Bershadsky B, et al. Early enteral feeding of a formula (Impact) supplemented with arginine, nucleotides, and fish oil in intensive care unit patients: Results of a multicenter, prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Critical Care Medicine 1995; 23: 436-449.

Buffington CA. Nutritional support of critically ill patients, Why bother? In: Proceedings. International Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society, San Antonio, TX, 1994: 323-326.

Burkholder WJ, Swecker WS. Nutritional influences on immunity. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery: Small Animal 1990; 5: 154-166.

Burkholder WJ. Metabolic rates and nutrient requirements of sick dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 1995; 206: 614-618.

Cahill GF, Owen OE. Starvation and survival. Transactions of the American Climatological and Clinical Association 1968; 79: 13-20.

Campbell KD, Dorn GP. Effects of oral sunflower oil and olive oil on serum and cutaneous fatty acids concentrations in dogs. Research in Veterinary Science 1992; 53: 172-178.

Campos ACL, Groth AK, Branco AB. Assessment and nutritional aspects of wound healing. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2008; 11: 281-288.

Cani PD, Delzenne NM. Gut microflora as a target for energy and metabolic homeostasis. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2007; 10: 729-734.

Chandra RK, Kumari S. Nutrition and immunity: An overview. Journal of Nutrition 1994; 124: 1433S-1435S.

Chandra RK. Nutrition and immunoregulation. Significance for host resistance to tumors and infectious diseases in humans and rodents. Journal of Nutrition 1992a; 122: 754-757.

Chandra RK. Protein-energy malnutrition and immunological responses. Journal of Nutrition 1992; 122: 597-600.

Chang HR, Dulloo AG, Vladonianu IR, et al. Fish oil decreases natural resistance of mice to infection with Salmonella typhimurium. Metabolism 1992; 41: 1-2.

Clary EM, Hardie EM, Fischer W, et al. Nonendoscopic antegrade percutaneous gastrostomy: The effect of preplacement gastric insufflation on tube position and intra-abdominal anatomy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 1996; 10: 15-20.

Crane SW. Nutritional aspects of wound healing. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery: Small Animal 1989; 4: 263-267.

Crowe DT. Methods of enteral feeding in the seriously ill or injured patient: Part I and Part II. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 1986; 3: 1-17.

Cuthbertson DP. The metabolic response to injury and its nutritional implications: Retrospect and prospect. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1979; 3: 108-129.

Daley BJ, Bistrian BR. Nutritional assessment. In: Zaloga GP, ed. Nutrition in Critical Care. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994; 9-33.

Davenport DJ, Mostardi RA, Richardson DC, et al. Protein-deficient diet alters serum alkaline phosphatase, bile acids, proteins and urea nitrogen in dogs. Journal of Nutrition 1994; 124: 2677S-2679S.

Deitel M, Williams VP, Rice TW. Nutrition and the patient requiring mechanical ventilatory support. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1983; 2: 25-32.

Elia M, De Silva A. Tight glucose control in intensive care units: An update with an emphasis on nutritional issues. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2008; 11: 465-470.

Elwyn DH, Kinney JM, Askanazi J. Energy expenditure in surgical patients. Surgical Clinics of North America 1981; 61: 545-546.

Engelking LR, Anwer MS. Liver and biliary tract. In: Anderson NV, ed. Veterinary Gastroenterology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1992; 211-274.

Fascetti AJ, Mauldin GE, Mauldin GN. Correlation between serum creatine kinase activities and anorexia in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 1997; 11: 9-13.

Felig P, Owen OE, Wahren J, et al. Amino acid metabolism during prolonged starvation. Journal of Clinical Investigation 1969; 48: 584-594.

Flynn MF, Hardie EM, Armstrong PJ. Effect of ovariohysterectomy on maintenance energy requirements in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 1996; 209: 1572-1581.

Freitag KA, Saker KE, Thomas E, et al. Acute nutritional deprivation and subsequent re-feeding affects lymphocyte subsets and membrane function in cats. Journal of Nutrition 2000; 130(10): 2444-2449.

Fritsche KL, McGuire SO. The adverse effects of an in vivo inflammatory challenge on the vitamin E status of rats is accentuated by fish oil feeding. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 1996; 7: 623-631.

Gandhi GY, Nuttall GA, Abel MD, et al. Intensive intraoperative insulin therapy versus conventional glucose management during cardiac surgery: A randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2007; 146: 233-243.

Gavin LA, Moeller M. The mechanism of recovery of hepatic T4-5’deiodinase during glucose refeeding: Role of glucagon and insulin. Metabolism 1983; 32: 543-551.

Goffschlich MM, Jenkins M, Warden GD, et al. Differential effects of three dietary regimens on selected outcome variables in burn patients. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1990; 14: 225-236.

Hall JB, Schmidt GA, Wood LDH, et al, eds. Principles of Critical Care, 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1998.

Himwich HE, Rose MI. The respiratory quotient of exercising muscle (abstract). American Journal of Physiology 1927; 81: 485-486.

Hoffer LJ. Starvation. In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1994; 927-949.

Ireton-Jones CS, Baxter CR. Nutrition for adult burn patients: A review. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 1990; 6: 3-7.

Jergens AE, Morrison JA, Miles KG, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrojejunostomy tube placement in healthy dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 2007; 21: 25-32.

Kein CL, Chang JC, Cooper JR, et al. Effects of prefeeding a prebiotic on diarrhea and colonic cell proliferation in piglets fed lactulose. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2004; 28: 22-26.

Kein CL, Murray RD, Qualman SJ, et al. Lactulose feeding in piglets: A model for persistent diarrhea and colitis induced by severe sugar malabsorption. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 1999; 44: 1476-1484.

Kien CL, Young VR, Rohrbaugh DK, et al. Increased rates of whole body protein synthesis and breakdown in children recovering from burns. Annals of Surgery 1978; 187: 383-391.

Kinney JM, ed. Energy metabolism: Heat, fuel and life. In: Nutrition and Metabolism in Patient Care. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1988; 3-34.

Kitagawa H, Kano M, Sasaki Y, et al. Serum creatine kinase in dogs with dirofilariasis. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 1991; 53: 569-575.

Klimberg VS, Salloum RM, Kasper M, et al. Oral glutamine accelerates healing of the small intestine and improves outcome after whole abdominal radiation. Archives of Surgery 1990; 125: 1040-1045.

Knodell RG. Effects of formula composition on hepatic and intestinal drug metabolism during enteral nutrition. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1990; 14: 34-38.

Kozar RA, Schultz SG, Bick RJ. Enteral glutamine but not alanine maintains small bowel barrier function after ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Shock 2004; 21: 433-437.

Krishnaswamy K. Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics in malnourished children. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 1989; 17 (Suppl.): 68-88.

Krizova I, Martin J, Saker KE. Glutamine-enhanced shock fluids diminish physiological consequences of hemorrhagic shock. In: Proceedings. Fourth Annual AAVN Clinical Nutrition and Research Symposium. June 2004.

Lacey JM, Wilmore DW. Is glutamine a conditionally essential amino acid? Nutrition Review 1990; 48: 297-309.

Laflamme DP. Body condition scoring and weight maintenance. In: Proceedings. North American Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, 1993: 290-291.

Lands WEM. Biochemistry and physiology of n-3 fatty acids. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology Journal 1992; 6: 2530-2536.

Lane HW, LeBlanc AD, Putcha L, et al. Nutrition and human physiological adaptations to space flight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 58: 583-588.

Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, et al. Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature 2006; 444: 1022-1023.

Ligthart-Melis GC, van de Poll MCG, Dejong CHC, et al. The route of administration (enteral or parenteral) affects the conversion of isotopically labeled L-[2-15N]glutamine into citrulline and arginine in humans. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2007; 31: 343-350.

Lowry SF, Brennan MF. Abnormal liver function during parenteral nutrition: Relation to infusion excess. Journal of Surgical Research 1979; 26: 300-307.

Lupo L, Pannarale O, Altomare D, et al. Reliability of clinical judgment in evaluation of the nutritional status of surgical patients. British Journal of Surgery 1993; 80: 1553-1556.

MacLaren R, Kiser TH, Fish DN, et al. Erythromycin vs metoclopramide for facilitating gastric emptying and tolerance to intragastric nutrition in critically ill patients. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2008; 32: 412-419.

Makhija S, Baker J. The subjective global assessment: A review of its use in clinical practice. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 2008; 4: 405-409.

Mallet JO. Calculating parenteral feedings: A programmed instruction. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1984; 84: 1312-1320.

Matthews DE, Fong Y. Amino acid and protein metabolism. In: Rombeau JL, Caldwell MD, eds. Clinical Nutrition; Parenteral Nutrition, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1993; 75-112.

McAdams P, DeChicco RS, Matarese LE, et al. Biochemical assessment and monitoring of nutritional status. In: Latifi R, Dudrick SJ, eds. Current Surgical Nutrition. Austin, TX: RG Landes, Chapman & Hall, 1996; 1-31.

Mendez CM, McClain CJ, Marsano LS. Albumin therapy in clinical practice. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 2005; 4: 314-320.

Meydani SN. Dietary modulation of cytokine production and biological functions. Nutrition Reviews 1990; 48: 361-369.

Michel K. Prognostic value of clinical nutritional assessment in canine patients. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 1993; 3: 96-104.

Minard G, Kudsk KA. Is early feeding beneficial? How early is early? New Horizons 1994; 2: 156-163.

Moore FA, Moore EE. Trauma. In: Zaloga GP, ed. Nutrition in Critical Care. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994; 571-586.

Moss G. Immediately postoperative full nutrition and sepsis resistance: Immune globulin synthesis (abstract). Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1978; 1: 36.

Murray MJ, Svingen BA, Holman RT, et al. Effects of a fish oil diet on pigs’ cardiopulmonary response to bacteremia. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1991; 15: 152-158.

Mutlu GM, Mutlu EA, Factor P. GI complications in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2001; 119: 1222-1241.

Novak F, Heyland DK, Avenell A, et al. Glutamine supplementation in serious illness: A systemic review of the evidence. Critical Care Medicine 2002; 30: 2022-2029.

NRC. (National Research Council.) Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006.

O’Dwyer ST, Smith RJ, Hwang TL, et al. Maintenance of small bowel mucosa with glutamine-enriched parenteral nutrition. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1989; 13: 579-585.

Ogilvie GK, Walters LM, Salman MD, et al. Resting energy expenditure in dogs with nonhematopoietic malignancies before and after excision of tumors. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1996; 57: 1463-1467.

Orton EC. Enteral hyperalimentation administered via needle catheter-jejunostoma as an adjunct to cranial abdominal surgery in dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 1986; 188: 1406-1411.

Ott L, Young B, Phillips R, et al. Brain injury and nutrition. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 1990; 5: 68-73.

Parke DV. Nutritional requirements for detoxication of environmental chemicals. Food Additives and Contaminants 1991; 8: 381-396.

Pasulka PS, Crockett C. Selecting enteral products. In: Borlase BC, Bell SJ, Blackburn GL, et al, eds. Enteral Nutrition. New York, NY: Chapman & Hall, 1994; 115-141.

Pelissier MA, Darmon N, Desjeux JF. Effects of protein deficiency on lipid peroxidation in the small intestine and liver of rats. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 1993; 1: 59-62.

Peng ZY, Serkova NJ, Kominsky DJ, et al. Glutamine-mediated attenuation of cellular metabolic dysfunction and cell death after injury is dependent on heat shock factor-1 expression. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2006; 30: 373-379.

Popp MB, Brennan MF. Metabolic response to trauma and infection. In: Fischer JE, ed. Surgical Nutrition. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co, 1983; 479-513.

Raftogianis RB, Franklin MR, Galinsky RE. The depression of hepatic drug conjugation reactions in rats after lipid-free total parenteral nutrition administered via the portal vein. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 1995; 19: 303-309.

Redmond HP, Leon P, Lieberman MD, et al. Impaired macrophage function in severe protein-energy malnutrition. Archives of Surgery 1991; 126: 192-196.

Remillard RL, Darden D, Michel K, et al. Caloric intake of hospitalized patients (abstract). Journal of Veterinary Clinical Nutrition 1998; (Suppl.): 70.

Remillard RL, Martin RA. Nutritional support in the surgical patient. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery: Small Animal 1990; 5: 197-207.

Remillard RL, Thatcher CD. Parenteral nutritional support in the small animal patient. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 1989; 19: 1287-1306.

Robertson JE, Christopher MM, Rogers QR. Heinz body formation in cats fed baby food with onion powder (abstract). In: Proceedings. Fifteenth Annual Veterinary Medical Forum, American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Lake Buena Vista, FL, 1997: 678.

Root M, Johnston SD, Olson PN. The effect of prepuberal and postpuberal gonadectomy on heat production measured by indirect calorimetry in male and female domestic cats. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1996; 57: 371-374.

Saker KE, Eddy AL, Kalnitsky J, et al. Manipulation of dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids alters platelet function in cats. Journal of Nutrition 1998; 128(12S): 2645-2647.

Saker KE, Reitz S, Lanz O, et al. Evaluation of a short-term perioperative glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition on mucosal and peripheral immunity in dogs. In: Proceedings. First Annual AAVN Clinical Nutrition and Research Symposium. Boston, MA. July 2001.

Saker KE. Feline cancer: Is there a role for polyunsaturated fatty acids? In: Proceedings. North American Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, 2002: 503-505.

Saxena QB, Saxena RK, Alder WH. Effect of protein calorie malnutrition on the levels of natural and inducible cytotoxic activities in mouse spleen cells. Immunology 1984; 51: 727-733.

Schaer M. Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome. In: Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC, eds. Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders, 2005; 424-428.

Schiffman SS. Taste and smell in disease. New England Journal of Medicine 1983; 308: 1337-1343.

Semba RD, Meydani SN, Kramer TR, et al. Micronutrient influences on immune response. Conference on Nutrition and Immunity as Part of the International Conference Series on Nutrition and Health Promotion. International Life Sciences Institute. Atlanta, GA, May 5-7, 1997: 9-18.

Shikora SA, Blackburn GL, Forse RA. Nutrition and immunology: Clinician’s approach. In: Forse RA, ed. Diet, Nutrition and Immunity. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Inc, 1994; 9-21.

Simon JC, Saker KE, Thomas E. Sensitivity of specific immune function tests to acute nutrient deprivation as indicators of nutritional status in a feline model. Nutrition Research 2000; 20(1): 79-89.

Souba WW, Roughneen PT, Goldwater DL, et al. Postoperative alterations in interorgan glutamine exchange in enterectomized dogs. Journal of Surgical Research 1987; 42: 117-125.

Stein TP, Oram-Smith JC, Wallace HW, et al. The effect of trauma on protein synthesis. Journal of Surgical Research 1976; 21: 201-203.

Stein TP. Protein metabolism and parenteral nutrition. In: Rombeau JL, CaIdwell MD, eds. Clinical Nutrition; Parenteral Nutrition, 1st ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1986; 100-134.

Thakkar K, Kein L, Rosenblatt JI, et al. Diarrhea in severely burned children. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2005; 29: 8-11.

Tilley LP, Smith FWK. Hyperosmolarity. The 5-Minute Veterinary Consult. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004; 630-631.

Tomkins AM, Garlick PJ, Schofield WN, et al. The combined effects of infection and malnutrition on protein metabolism. Clinical Science 1983; 65: 313-324.

Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, et al. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 2006; 444: 1027-1031.

Vagenakis AG, Burger A, Portnay GI, et al. Diversion of peripheral thyroxine metabolism from activating to inactivating pathways during complete fasting. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1975; 41: 191-194.

Walter-Sack I, Klotz U. Influence of diet and nutritional status on drug metabolism. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 1996; 31: 47-64.

Walton RS, Wingfield WE, Ogilvie GK, et al. Energy expenditure in 104 postoperative and traumatically injured dogs with indirect calorimetry. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 1996; 6: 71-79.

Welborn MB, Moldawer LL. Glucose metabolism. In: Rombeau JL, Rolandelli RH, eds. Clinical Nutrition; Enteral and Tube Feeding, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1997; 61-80.

Windsor JA. Underweight patients and the risks of major surgery. World Journal of Surgery 1993; 17: 165-172.

Wischmeyer PE. Glutamine: Role in gut protection in critical illness. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2006; 9: 607-612.

Yang R, Martin-Hawver L, Woodall C, et al. Administration of glutamine after hemorrhagic shock restores cellular energy, reduces cell apoptosis and damage, and increases survival. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2007; 31: 94-100.

Zeiderman MR, King RFGJ, Young GA, et al. Metabolic changes in human liver associated with pre-operative intravenous nutrition. Clinical Science 1989; 77: 343-349.



Box 25-1 Bibliography

Druce M, Small C, Bloom S. Minireview: Gut peptides regulating satiety. Endocrinology 2004; 145(6): 2660-2665.

Flier J, Maratos-Flier E. What fuels fat. Scientific American 2007; 297(3): 72-84.

Ganong W. Review of Medical Physiology, 22nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2005; 235-240.

Graaf C, Bloom W, Smeets P, et al. Biomarkers of satiation and satiety. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004; 79: 946-961.

Schiffman SS. Taste and smell in disease (first of two parts). New England Journal of Medicine 1983; 308: 1275-1279.

Schiffman SS. Taste and smell in disease (second of two parts). New England Journal of Medicine 1983; 308: 1337-1343.

Strubbe JH. Regulation of food intake. In: Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Fredrix EWHM, Steffens AB, eds. Food Intake and Energy Expenditure. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Inc, 1994; 141-154.



Box 25-2 Bibliography

Charney P. Nutrition assessment in the 1990s: Where are we now? Nutrition in Clinical Practice 1995; 10: 131-139.

Hauptman JG, Feldman BF, O’Neill SL, et al. A turbidimetric method for fibronectin assay in the dog. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1988; 49: 1935-1936.

Heymsfield SB, Tighe A, Wang ZM. Nutritional assessment by anthropometric and biochemical methods. In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1994; 839.

Otto CM, Brown CA, Lindi PA, et al. Delayed hypersensitivity testing as a clinical measure of cell-mediated immunity in the cat. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 1993; 38: 91-102.

Spiekerman AM. Proteins used in nutritional assessment. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 1993; 13: 353-369.

Tellado-Rodriquez J, Christou NV. Clinical assessment of host defense. Surgical Infections 1988; 68: 41-55.



Box 25-3 Bibliography

Davenport DJ. Tube feeding: Managing complications of enteral feeding. In: Proceedings. International Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society, San Antonio, TX, 1996: 297-302.

Hamaoui E, Kodsi R. Complications of enteral feeding and their prevention. In: Rombeau JL, Rolandelli RH, eds. Clinical Nutrition; Enteral and Tube Feeding, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1997; 554-574.

Justin RB, Hohenhaus AE. Hypophosphatemia associated with enteral alimentation in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 1995; 9: 228-233.

Martin LG, Van Pelt DR, Wingfield WE. Magnesium and the critically ill patient. In: Bonagura JD, ed. Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co, 1995; 128-131.



mmi logo
© 2022 Mark Morris Institute